Truth Magazine

By Marc W. Gibson

The ancient manuscripts known as the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in 1947 by a Bedouin shepherd in a cave in the cliffs just above the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea. In the years that followed, some eight hundred intact and fragmented manuscripts were found in several nearby caves, adding up to the greatest archaeological find of the twentieth century. It continues to be the prevailing view of scholars today that these ancient scrolls were placed in these caves by the inhabitants of the settlement of Qumran, the remains of which lie between the cliffs and the Dead Sea.

The most likely inhabitants of Qumran were the Essenes, a sect of the Jews which separated itself from, and was critical of, mainstream Judaism based in Jerusalem. Though a point of dispute among scholars today, the manuscripts were most likely produced and owned by the Qumran settlement, and hidden when the Romans sent their army to the region to put down a Jewish uprising (A.D. 68-70). The excavators of Qumran have determined that it was destroyed in A.D. 68 by the Romans as they prepared to overthrow Jerusalem. Though Qumran was destroyed, the scrolls were safely hidden in the caves until their discovery 1,879 years later.
The scrolls date from between 250 B.C. and A.D. 68 and include communal (sectarian) laws and regulations, religious documents, and most importantly for biblical textual studies, manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible. Every book of the Old Testament was represented except Esther. This discovery pushed the evidence for the Old Testament text back more than one thousand years, and a study of these texts have shown that our Old Testament translations today are extremely accurate and based on solid textual evidence. 

The remaining materials in the cache of scrolls should not be quickly dismissed as inconsequential to the study of the Bible or the New Testament in particular. When one understands that most of the sectarian and religious scrolls were produced and/or collected in a Jewish setting of the two centuries leading up to the time of Jesus and the New Testament (known as Second Temple Judaism), then he will realize that information may be available to shed light on the society and times in which Jesus lived and the New Testament was written. Jesus encountered various opinions and views among the Jews of his day. Could the  scrolls help us identify some of this thinking? In what ways can they illuminate our understanding of New Testament backgrounds?

Dangerous Theories

In reading scholarly works on this subject, one will be inundated with the theories of men concerning the relationship of the New Testament and the Second Temple Judaism in the years before and during the first century. The Christian should beware of the liberal critical opinions that downplay, or even dismiss, the role of divine inspiration as the source of the message of the New Testament. Much speculation is practiced in the attempt to derive the “sources” of the teachings of Jesus and the New Testament. Emphasis is given to the Jewish “soil” out of which Christianity supposedly arose. While it is true that the teachings of Jesus and the New Testament must be understood against the backdrop of the promises, prophecies, and shadows of the Old Testament, Jesus was not dependent on the Jewish thinking of his day to help formulate his doctrine. 

The prevailing Jewish opinions of that day about the Old Testament and the person and work of the Messiah were not the “soil” from which New Testament doctrine was founded. Any parallels that have been suggested are only that, parallels. They do not prove in any way that Christianity borrowed or tweaked the popular thinking of its day, and became just another sect of Judaism. Jesus came to fulfill the Law and reveal divine truth (Matt. 5:17; John 7:16-17). He confronted various erroneous views and faulty interpretations (John 5:46-47; Matt. 22:15-46). The scrolls can help us understand more about both the parallels and contrasts.

Parallel Themes

One of the more interesting parallels in the teachings of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament is the distinction between Light and Darkness. One Qumran text, The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, speaks of the battle between the forces of Light and Darkness. Jesus used light and darkness to illustrate the distinction between truth and error (John 3:19-21; 8:12), as did Paul (2 Cor. 4:3-6; 6:14) and John (1 John 1:5-6; 2:9-10). Other parallel themes found in the scrolls include criticism of loving riches, righteousness, flesh and spirit, and the necessity of conversion. These parallels illustrate the common use of metaphors and the understanding of general themes revealed in Scripture.

Old Testament Prophecy

The Qumran community cited the Old Testament in its religious texts, but the fulfillments of its prophecies were often interpreted in the context of their ideology. One such example is found in the Manual of Discipline [Community Rule] (8:12-15) where Isaiah 40:3 is applied to the community itself, instead of John the Baptist’s heralding of the coming of Jesus (Matt. 3:1-3). They also understood themselves to be the eschatological “last generation” through whom God would bring final victory for the righteous. Through them would come a “Teacher of Righteousness” that would give the proper understanding of God’s Word. These examples affirm the fact that the Old Testament prophecies and promises were not fully understood until Jesus Christ revealed their fulfillment in him and his kingdom.

Views About the Messiah

One of the most significant subjects that the Dead Sea Scrolls helps us to understand is the confused first century view of the person and work of the Messiah. Those at Qumran reflected their times in that they had a high expectation of the Messiah. References are made to “the Messiah of Righteousness . . . the Branch of David” (Genesis Commentaries [4Q252]; Commentaries on Isaiah [4Q161]), and to a royal and militaristic “Prince of the Congregation” (Damascus Document 7:18-20; War Scroll 5:1) But the concept was taken further in the expectation of two messiahs: “They shall depart from none of the counsels of the Law to walk in all the stubbornness of their hearts, but shall be ruled by the primitive precepts in which the men of the Community were first instructed until there shall come the Prophet and the Messiahs of Aaron and Israel” (Manual of Discipline 9:10-11). Actually, three different characters are spoken of here: the Prophet, Messiah of Aaron, and the Messiah of Israel. The Messiah of Israel was a royal messiah, while the Messiah of Aaron was a priestly messiah and is the prominent one in that context. These beliefs again reflected erroneous views of Old Testament prophecy concerning the Messiah. On the other hand, the Messianic Apocalypse accurately speaks of a Messiah whose work would be of liberating captives, restoring sight to the blind, healing the wounded, reviving the dead, and bringing good news to the poor (see Isa. 61:1; Matt. 11:4-5). There were many different views and opinions as to whom the Messiah(s) was and what role he would fulfill, but there is no suggestion that he would be a suffering servant who would die. The expectation that the Messiah would suffer and give his life as a ransom for sinful man is noticeably absent in Jesus’ day and in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Matt. 16:21-23; Luke 24:25-26).

Misunderstanding and confusion is also found concerning the Prophet and the Messiah being understood as two different individuals, instead of two roles being combined in the Coming One (John 1:19-21; Acts 3:22-26). The popular conceptions of the Messiah did not consider him to be a suffering servant who would die (Matt. 16:21-23; John 12:34). The Jews were looking for a victorious earthly warrior-king (John 6:14-15). Christ and the apostles would be the ones who would expound the divine truth concerning Jesus the Messiah as Prophet, Priest, and King (Luke 24:27, 44; Acts 2:36; 17:2-3). Jesus was given all authority and brought grace, truth, and salvation (Matt. 28:18; John 1:9-16). He fulfilled the promises and prophecies of the Old Testament.

The Dead Sea Scrolls are one of the most significant discoveries in the history of Biblical archaeology. They reveal snapshots of Jewish thought in the years leading up to Jesus and the New Testament. We view in them the struggle to understand the meaning of the text of the Hebrew Bible. We see the confusion and errors that plagued the thinking of many who needed the light of truth revealed in Jesus. Only in that truth would they be able to find familiar themes placed in their proper context and the divine plan of God revealed in its fullness. Only in Christ would they be able to see the mystery revealed (1 Cor. 2:26-16; Eph. 3:1-7).

Recommended Reading

The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, Geza Vermes (New York: Allen Lane, The Penguin Press, 1997).
Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls: A Reader from the Biblical Archaeology Review, Hershel Shanks, ed. (New York: Random House, 1992).
The Mystery and Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Hershel Shanks (New York: Random House, 1998).
The Scepter and the Star: The Messiahs of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Other Ancient Literature, John J. Collins (New York: Doubleday, 1995).
The Dead Sea Scrolls After Forty Years, Hershel Shanks, et. al. (Washington D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1991).
Solving the Mysteries of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Edward M. Cook (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994).
The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Bible, Charles F. Pfeiffer (New York: Weathervane Books, 1969).
The Dead Sea Scrolls and Modern Translations of the Old Testament, Harold Scanlin (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1993).
“Dead Sea Scrolls,” William Sanford LaSor, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, rev. ed., (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1979), 883-897.

6708 O’Doniel Loop W, Lakeland, Florida 33809marcgibson@aol.com

By Robert Hutto

Through the nineteenth century and into the beginning of the twentieth, a collection of papyri was found at and around a Jewish colony located near Aswan at Elephantine, an island in the Nile just north of the first cataract. The discoveries include papyri written in Egyptian, Greek, and Aramaic, of which the latter are the most valuable for Bible study. The documents do not contain copies of the Scriptures, but deal with a variety of matters ranging from political to religious, family, business, and literary concerns. Among these texts are letters (both official and personal), contracts, lists, literary works (a collection of proverbs called The Words of Ahikar), and accounts. The collection, which was acquired over about one hundred years through purchases from Egyptian dealers in antiquities as well as archaeological excavation, contains the largest collection of Aramaic papyri ever found. When discovered, many of these documents were still neatly folded and sealed (see photograph in LaSor’s article entitled “Aramaic” in the revised International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 1979).

What is Aramaic?

The Old Testament is written primarily in Hebrew, but about two percent of it is written in Aramaic. The two languages are quite similar. They are both classified as Northwest Semitic, their vocabularies overlap, and they share syntactic features. Even the square script of the Hebrew Bible was developed from the Aramaic script (Wurthwein 3-6). Aramaic was incorrectly identified as Chaldee in places such as Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon by William Gesenius and Syrian/Syriack in Ezra 4:7 and Daniel 2:4 in the King James Version (corrected in NKJV). It apparently was developed by a rather non-descript group of people, the Arameans, whose only contribution (besides their association with Israel) is this language. The biblical passages written in Aramaic are Ezra 4:8-6:18; 7:12-26, Daniel 2:4b-7:28, one verse in Jeremiah (10:11), and two words spoken by Laban in Genesis 31:47. Its influence is also seen in New Testament words and expressions such as marana tha (1 Cor. 16:22), ephphatha (Mark 7:34), and talitha cumi (Mark 5:41).
Aramaic became the “medium of international communication in the days of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires . . .” (LaSor 229). Eventually Aramaic became the common language of the ancient Near East until the spread of Hellenism and the imposition of Greek. The Elephantine Papyri, written in Imperial Aramaic, span the fifth century B.C. By this time the Persians had allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild.

Even after the spread of Greek through the ancient world, three areas continued to speak Aramaic (LaSor 231). These included Arabia (until the Christian era), Mesopotamia (in some cases to the present day), and Palestine (until the conquest by Islam). Although it is debated, it is widely held that Jews of the first century, including Jesus, commonly spoke Aramaic (for example, “Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani,” Mark 15:34).

The Elephantine Papyri and the Bible

These papyri give us some insight into the character of Judaism outside Palestine in the Persian period. Though Persia allowed the Jews to return to Palestine, many Jews chose to remain where they were. Among them were the Jews at Elephantine. This did not mean, however, that they chose to abandon the worship of the Lord (one of the features of these texts is the use of Yahu, a form of the divine name Yahweh). Unfortunately, they did not worship him according to the requirements of the Law. No doubt because of the influence of their surroundings, they combined elements of idolatry with the worship of the Lord. Kidner calls them an example of “unreformed Judaism, to set alongside that of the reformed community which came back chastened from Babylon” (Kidner 143).

The Law required that sacrifices be made in the place where God put his name (Exod. 20:24; Deut. 12:5-6; Ezra 6:12). That place was Jerusalem (1 Kings 9:3). However, the Elephantine community had erected a temple in their city, and had equipped it with an altar for offering meal-offerings, incense, and burnt offerings. This temple had been spared by Cambyses when he invaded Egypt (525 B.C.), but was subsequently destroyed by one Widrang, an Egyptian, perhaps because they found the slaughtering of lambs offensive (the priests of Khnub, an Egyptian cult, held lambs to be sacred). 

What happened next proves quite interesting. Apparently Elephantine Jews appealed to the Persian king for permission to celebrate the Passover. This they were granted (the so-called “Passover Papyrus” does not mention the Passover explicitly, though many believe the reference is suggested). The sacrifice of animals must have continued to be a point of contention, however, for in a later text we learn that the Jews were willing to limit their sacrifices to incense and meal-offerings and forgo the sacrifice of sheep and oxen. Note that the Elephantine Jews appealed to the king in much the same way as the Jews and their adversaries did in the book of Ezra. 

The Elephantine Jews also requested permission to rebuild their temple. They had sent a letter to Johanan the high priest and his associates in Jerusalem, but after three years they received no reply (which itself may show Jerusalem’s disapproval of a temple outside the holy city). A letter of request was then sent to Bagoas, Persian governor of Judea. Two things are to be noticed. First, if the Jews at Elephantine were aware of the law prohibiting sacrifice outside the precincts of Jerusalem, they must not have thought it applied to them. It may be, however, that in simple ignorance they appealed to Jerusalem for permission to build a temple. Second, they mention in the letter to Bagoas that they had also written to Delaiah and Shelemaiah, the sons of Sanballat the governor of Samaria about their case. Interestingly, the Samaritans were similar to the Elephantine Jews in that they both had connections with Judaism, but were something less than “orthodox.” Apparently, these Jews did not share the same animosity toward the Samaritans that their Judean brethren harbored. They clearly wanted someone to endorse their efforts, and it apparently mattered little to them whether it came from Jerusalem or Samaria.

We also find evidence of idolatrous influence at Elephantine in the names of gods referred to in these texts. These Jews there apparently did not hesitate to combine the name of God (Yahu) with the names of other deities. For example, one passage contains the name Anath-yahu, a combination of the name of an old Canaanite deity (Anath) and the divine name of God (Yahu). Some suggest (Rowley 257) that the Elephantine Jews thought of Anath-yahu as a consort of Yahweh, something like the Queen of Heaven referred to by Jeremiah (7:18; 44:17). 

These things remind us that there has always been a wide variety of beliefs, practices, and expectations within Judaism. We sometimes speak of “what Jews thought” or “what the Jews were looking for” as if all Jews believed the same thing. In reality, though there may have been certain core beliefs, there has always been a wide range of opinion in Judaism.

The correspondence between the Jews at Elephantine and the Persian government also sheds light on the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. First, the mention of Sanballat helps both to demonstrate the historicity of these books and fix their date. Second, critical scholars once considered the Aramaic portions of Ezra spurious because the style appeared too recent to fit the traditional date. These considerations led some to date the books of 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah as late as the third century B.C. (Phifer 812). The Elephantine Papyri show conclusively, however, that the Aramaic of Ezra was in use during the fifth century B.C. Furthermore, these papyri show that the Persians took a genuine interest in the affairs of their subjects and that letters were sent back and forth between subjects and officials of the Persian government when it became necessary. In short, the historical conditions of Ezra-Nehemiah are confirmed by the Elephantine Papyri (Harrison: 1969, 1141). Other more nuanced considerations affecting the dating of Ezra-Nehemiah can be found in the commentaries and introductions.

Conclusion

Again and again archaeology has confirmed the accuracy of the Bible. By mentioning a biblical character, Sanballat, and locating him in the same place and time in which the Bible places him, these ancient documents do their part to establish the credibility of the Old Testament. But work on the Elephantine Papyri is an ongoing project. These documents have made a significant contribution to this point, but what role they may yet play in helping with the interpretation of the Bible is still to be determined. For example, Bezalel Porten uses the form of the Elephantine conveyances to help interpret Numbers 18 (Porten: 1993, 257-271). 

To this point these texts have been published in various sources and not easily obtained. However, Porten and Yardeni are publishing a four-volume collection of the Elephantine Papyri in Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt, Newly Copied, Edited, and Translated into Hebrew and English. Otherwise one may find some of these texts in Ancient Near Eastern Texts edited by James Pritchard and Documents from Old Testament Times edited by D. Winton Tomas.

Bibliographic Information

Harrison, R.K. “Elephantine Papyri.” International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Gen. ed. Geoffrey Bromiley. Vol. 2. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982. II:58-61. 4 vols.

Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969.

Kidner, David. Ezra and Nehemiah. Tyndale Old Testament  Commentaries. Ed. D.J. Wiseman. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1979.

LaSor, W.S. “Aramaic.” International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Gen. ed. Geoffrey Bromiley. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979. I:229-233. 4 vols.

Phifer, Robert H. Introduction to the Old Testament. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969.

Porten, Bezalel. “Elephantine Papyri.” Anchor Bible Dictionary. Ed. D.N. Freedman. Vol 2. New York: Doubleday, 1992. II:445-455.
____. “Elephantine Aramaic Contracts and the Priestly Literature.” Minhah le-Nahum: Biblical and Other Studies Presented to Nahum M. Sarna in Honour of His 70th Birthday. Eds. Marc Brettler and Michael Fishbane. Sheffield, England: Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Press, 1993.

Rowley, H. H. “Papyri from Elephantine.” Documents from Old Testament Times. Ed. D. Winton Thomas. New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1958.

Wurthwein, Ernst. The Text of the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Biblia Hebraica. Trans. Erroll F. Rhodes. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992.

211 Crutcher Cr., Athens, Alabama 35611

By C.R. Scroggins

The mound of the ancient city of Lachish (ed-Duweir), a large tell approximately thirty acres at the base and eighteen acres at the top, is located twenty-five to thirty miles southwest of Jerusalem. This city was commonly referred to as the “Royal City of the Kingdom of Judah.” For a number of years it was thought by some archeologists that another tell not far distanced (el-Hesy) was the site of Lachish. However, in 1929, W.F. Albright, a most noted author, who had done extensive archaeological survey in Palestine, suggested that the location (ed-Duweir) was a more favorable site. Later excavations of the site begun by the British archaeologist, J.L. Starkey, in 1932, confirmed Albright’s suggestion. Unfortunately Starkey’s work came to an abrupt halt with his murder by a gang of Arab looters in 1938.

Historical Lachish 

Starkey’s finds, along with more extensive and systematic excavations and analysis of the various stratums, conducted between 1973 and 1987 revealed that a large Canaanite city was first established near the beginning of the second millennium B.C. It was well fortified, being naturally located in a position that dominated the surrounding territory. Its builders constructed a large wall twenty feet in width with buttresses and towers. In front of the wall, a ramp-like structure (called a glacis) was made of well-compacted earth with a hard plaster surface. At the base of this structure was a moat. However, in spite of this tremendous fortification, the city was captured and violently destroyed by Joshua ca., 1450 B.C. (cf. Joshua 10:31-33). It was during this time, while Joshua was doing battle with the coalition of five Amorite kings, that the Lord caused the “sun to stand still” (Josh. 10:2-13). 

The ruins of the city seem to have been deserted until the tenth century B.C. when Rehoboam, last king of the united monarchy and first king of the southern kingdom, rebuilt the fortifications. Another twenty-foot mud brick wall was constructed on a stone foundation (cf. 2 Chron. 11:5-12). During the city’s era of Israelite domination, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invaded Palestine (c. 701 B.C.) and besieged many of the fortified cities, one of which was Lachish. It was an extremely fierce battle at Lachish, as the remains of many scales of armor, sling-stones, and various other weapons indicate. In the end, however, the city was conquered and its destruction was total. Corroboration of this came when excavations at Nineveh produced the discovery of reliefs on the walls of Sennacherib’s palace, attesting to the fierceness of this great battle. 

With his victory at Lachish and other fortified cities, Sennacherib caused Hezekiah, king of Judah, being one that was weak and vacillating, to negotiate a “buy out” with him (2 Kings 18:13-16). The king of Assyria accepted the silver and gold from the treasury and temple but subsequently launched his army, from Lachish, against Jerusalem anyway (2 Kings 17). However, like many in history, Sennacherib failed to take into consideration the God of heaven who sent his angel and “smote in the camp of the Assyrians an hundred fourscore and five thousand” (2 Kings 19:35). Approximately 64 years later, during the reign of King Josiah (639-609 B.C.), the city of Lachish was rebuilt and again fortified, but not nearly as strong and formidable as it had been previously. 

The Ostraca 

The various stratums of the Lachish mound plus the Ostraca (potsherds, broken pieces of pottery, with letters, notes, etc., inscribed) which Starkey found there have been most revealing of several events during Jeremiah’s time. There were about twenty-one of these Ostracon found and some have been completely translated. What we have been able to glean from these letters confirms much of the Bible’s account of Jeremiah’s prophecies. For example, one of the letters reads: “Let (the garrison commander) also know that we are watching for the beacon (fires) of Lachish, (interpreting them) in accordance with all the code-signals which my lord has given — but we can no longer see Azekah.” Now, compare this with Jeremiah’s account (Jer. 34:6-7), “Then Jeremiah the prophet spake all these words unto Zedekiah king of Judah in Jerusalem, When the king of Babylon’s army fought against Jerusalem, and against all the cities of Judah that were left, against Lachish, and against Azekah: for these defenced cities remained of the cities of Judah.”

These letters discovered in 1935 during Starkey’s work have generally been dated late 589 B.C. to 587 B.C., shortly before the Chaldeans besieged and conquered first Lachish and then Jerusalem, ca., 587 B.C. The collection of Ostraca from Lachish were primarily military letters written during the haste and confusion as Babylonian armies were invading. In three of the letters it appears that Hoshaiah, probably a commander of an outpost, was reporting to Yaosh, the commander of Lachish and surrounding region. Please notice that the phrase “the prophet” (most likely Jeremiah) is mentioned in Ostracon number three as follows: 

Your servant, Hoshaiah, sent to inform my lord, Yaosh. May YHWH cause my lord to hear a report of peace and a [re]port of [g]ood news. And now open, please, the ear of your servant concerning the letter which you sent to your servant last night, because the heart of your servant has been ill since you sent (the letter) to your servant. And as for what my lord said: “You did not understand it. Call a scribe!” By the life of YHWH no one has attempted to read a letter to me at any time. And, moreover, any scribe who may come to me, (I swear) I did not summon him,     [. . .] (I swear) I will not pay him! Not anything! And to your servant it has been reported, saying, “The commander of the army, Coniah the son of Elnathan, has gone down to go into Egypt, so he has sent (messengers) to take Hodaiah, the son of Ahijah, and his men from here. And as for the letter of Tobijah, the servant of the king, which came to Shallum, the son of Jaddua, from the prophet (emp. mine, crs), saying ‘Beware!’, your servant has sent it to my lord.”  

Comparing this with Jeremiah 26:20-22, this great find gives us solid, tangible evidence of Biblical “truth.” With the Lachish Ostraca we have a glimpse into history, written after Jeremiah 34:6-7 but before Jeremiah 39:2. These small fragments of pottery with their messages, hidden for centuries, prove the Bible record. So, once again, the skeptics with their molesting of Scripture and mockery of biblical truths have been soundly defeated.  

Reference Material
ISBE, Vol. III. 
A Dictionary of the Bible, Hastings, Vol. III. 
Pictorial Bible Dictionary, M.C. Tenney, gen. ed. 
Nelson’s Illustrated Bible Dictionary. 
Archaeology and the O.T., M.F. Unger.  
The Bible and Archaeology, J.A. Thompson. 
The Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, Avraham Negev, ed. 
Archaeology of Palestine, W.F. Albright. 
The Concise Encyclopedia of Archaeology, Leonard Cottrell, ed. 
Atlas of Ancient Archaeology, Jacquetta Hawkes. 
The City of Lachish, S.B. Oostendorp.

1005 N. Alice Dr., Duncan, Oklahoma 73533-1557 crscroggins@juno.com 

By Kevin Maxey

“How lonely sits the city that was full of people! How like a widow is she, who was great among the nations!” (Lam. 1:1). The Babylonian Empire has crushed, broken, and defeated God’s chosen people before the eyes of the world. Could this humiliated nation actually be the same descendants of Abraham, Moses, and David? What about all those glorious messianic prophecies? While Jerusalem lies in rubble, her inhabitants are exiled prisoners in a foreign land.  Satan and the pagan world rejoice as they profane the “so-called” people of God (Ezek. 36:20). Where is the Lord of Judah now? Is there any hope for redemption? Where is the Messiah?

This is one of numerous occasions where Jehovah confidently establishes that he indeed “rules in the kingdom of men” (Dan. 4:17), “removes kings and raises up kings” (Dan. 2:21), and employs nations to carry out his will. The divine King is not slumbering on his throne. He has a flawless plan of restoration that involves a certain man named Cyrus, who will conquer the Babylonian Empire, and not only release the Jews, but help them rebuild their temple (Isa. 44:24-45:7; 2 Chron. 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-11; 6:1-12). This will ensure the survival of the Jewish remnant and prepare the way for the coming Messiah.

A 2500-year-old clay cylinder was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in Neneveh, Iraq, in 1879 that validates the biblical description of this king Cyrus who did in fact have a political policy of releasing captives to their homelands and rebuilding their religious sanctuaries. The informative cuneiform message on this broken cylinder, 23 cm long and 11 cm wide consists of approximately 40 lines inscribed around 538 B.C. in the Akkadian (Babylonian) language. The cyrus Cylinder, currently locate in the British Museum, is a key archaeological proof that validates yet another biblical account as true.

 Why is the Cyrus Cylinder Important

1. The Cyrus Cylinder verifies Cyrus as an authentic historical figure. In his cylinder Cyrus asserts, “I am Cyrus, king of the world, great king, legitimate king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four rims (of the earth), son of Cambyses” (All italicized Cyrus Cylinder quotes come from The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, edited by James B. Pritchard [1958] 206-208). When Isaiah named, over a century in advance, Cyrus as the king who would restore the people of God to their homeland (Isa. 44:28), he did not resort to a random selection of chance. The Scriptures contain nineteen direct references to this Cyrus. The Cyrus Cylinder, along with several other historical records, attests to the accuracy of the Biblical account. The Bible is neither fairy tale nor fable; rather, it is an inspired and correct record of the lives of authentic people, cities, and events (2 Pet. 1:20-21). 

2. The Cyrus Cylinder confirms the biblical prophecy of Cyrus’ defeat of Babylon. The cylinder describes how the Babylonian god, “Marduk, the great lord . . . ordered him to march against his city Babylon” (Ibid. 206). Cyrus continues to explain how he “entered Babylon” and “established the seat of government in the palace of the ruler” (Ibid. 207). Even before Jerusalem was destroyed by Babylon, God foretold the very one whom he would use to defeat Babylon. The Lord identified this as Cyrus, whom he appointed “to subdue nations before him and loose the armor of kings,” (Isa. 45:1). God predicted the dethroning of Babylon and the clearly implied instrument he would use for their collapse was Cyrus (Isa. 47:1; 45:1). 

Daniel 5:30-31 speaks of the fall of Babylon and makes mention of the ensuing reign of Darius the Mede. Other references in both the Scriptures and secular history identify Cyrus as the one responsible for conquering Babylon. This is not a contradiction because it very well could be that Darius the Mede was left in rule of Babylon while serving under the imperial reign of Cyrus.

3. The Cyrus Cylinder affirms the biblical prophecy of Cyrus’ release of captives. God not only used Cyrus as a tool to punish Babylon for their iniquities (Isa. 47:10-11), but once Cyrus gained power, the Lord used him to return his people to Jerusalem. After pronouncing judgment on Judah by the hands of Babylon (Isa. 43:14), God looks past the captivity and “says to Jerusalem, ‘You shall be inhabited’” (Isa. 44:26). Even before the Babylonian captivity, Jehovah gave hope to the faithful remnant by promising a return. The one ruler whom God would providentially use to make this happen would be, “Cyrus, ‘He is my shepherd, and he shall perform all My good pleasure’” (Isa. 44:28).

The Holy Spirit not only foretells the coming Babylonian destruction, he also specifies the length of their captivity. “For thus says the Lord: After seventy years are completed at Babylon, I will visit you and perform my good word toward you, and cause you to return to this place” (Jer. 29:10). Both Chronicles and Ezra refer to Jeremiah’s prophecy. “Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, that the word of the Lord spoken by the mouth of Jeremiah might be fulfilled, the Lord stirred the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia, so that he made a proclamation throughout all his kingdom” (2 Chron. 36:22; Ezra 1:1). Cyrus allows the captive Jew to return home saying, “May the Lord his God be with him, and let him go up!” (2 Chron. 36:23).

The Cyrus Cylinder verifies that Cyrus did in fact have a policy of returning captives to their homeland. He says, “I (also) gathered all their (former) inhabitants and returned (to them) their habitations” (Ibid. 208). Nearly 150 years prior to the event, the Holy Spirit accurately prophesied the return of the Jewish captives. Liberal scholars, try as they might, cannot adequately explain away this prophecy.

4. The Cyrus Cylinder verifies Cyrus’ sanctuary rebuilding policy. Speaking of Cyrus, Jehovah said, “He is my shepherd, and he shall perform all My pleasure, even saying to Jerusalem, ‘You shall be built,’ and to the temple, ‘Your foundation shall be laid’” (Isa. 44:28).  Cyrus proclaimed, God “has commanded me to build Him a house at Jerusalem” (Ezra 1:2). The Persian king even goes as far as to command his people to contribute “silver and gold, with goods and livestock, besides the freewill offerings for the house of God which is in Jerusalem” (Ezra 1:4). Years later as Darius the king of Persia (not to be confused with Darius the Mede) researches this edict of Cyrus, he discovers that Cyrus financed the Jerusalem reconstruction with Persian funds. “Let the expenses be paid from the king’s treasury” (Ezra 6:4).

Again, this is consistent with Cyrus’ behavior as described on his cylinder. “I returned to (these) sacred cities on the other side of the Tigris, the sanctuaries of which have been ruins for a long time, the images which (used) to live therein and established for them permanent sanctuaries” (Ibid. 208). Though there is no reference on the cylinder of king Cyrus specifically doing such for the Jewish nation, this quote clearly establishes the fact that the actions of Cyrus, as recorded by the Scriptures, are consistent with his dealings with conquered nations.

Final Lessons

The events surrounding Judah, Cyrus, and this cylinder affirm the following fundamental lessons:

1. God performs works beyond our imagination. While a dejected Judah sat captive in a foreign land, God was performing a grand work beyond their finite comprehension. About these events, the Lord explained to Habakkuk, “Look among the nations and watch — be utterly astounded! For I will work a work in your days which you would not believe, though it were told you” (Hab. 1:5; 2:3). Though we may not understand the discouraging events of our day, we can rest assured that God “is able to do exceedingly abundantly above all that we ask or think” (Eph. 3:20).

2. God does rule in the kingdoms of men. The Creator of this world is not indifferent towards or uninvolved with his creation. Just as God used Cyrus as an instrument to “perform all My pleasure” (Isa. 44:28), we can be confident that even among the worldly and political turmoil of our day, “The Most High rules in the kingdom of men” (Dan. 4:25).

 Why is the Cyrus Cylinder Important

1. The Cyrus Cylinder verifies Cyrus as an authentic historical figure. In his cylinder Cyrus asserts, “I am Cyrus, king of the world, great king, legitimate king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four rims (of the earth), son of Cambyses” (All italicized Cyrus Cylinder quotes come from The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, edited by James B. Pritchard [1958] 206-208). When Isaiah named, over a century in advance, Cyrus as the king who would restore the people of God to their homeland (Isa. 44:28), he did not resort to a random selection of chance. The Scriptures contain nineteen direct references to this Cyrus. The Cyrus Cylinder, along with several other historical records, attests to the accuracy of the Biblical account. The Bible is neither fairy tale nor fable; rather, it is an inspired and correct record of the lives of authentic people, cities, and events (2 Pet. 1:20-21). 

2. The Cyrus Cylinder confirms the biblical prophecy of Cyrus’ defeat of Babylon. The cylinder describes how the Babylonian god, “Marduk, the great lord . . . ordered him to march against his city Babylon” (Ibid. 206). Cyrus continues to explain how he “entered Babylon” and “established the seat of government in the palace of the ruler” (Ibid. 207). Even before Jerusalem was destroyed by Babylon, God foretold the very one whom he would use to defeat Babylon. The Lord identified this as Cyrus, whom he appointed “to subdue nations before him and loose the armor of kings,” (Isa. 45:1). God predicted the dethroning of Babylon and the clearly implied instrument he would use for their collapse was Cyrus (Isa. 47:1; 45:1). 

Daniel 5:30-31 speaks of the fall of Babylon and makes mention of the ensuing reign of Darius the Mede. Other references in both the Scriptures and secular history identify Cyrus as the one responsible for conquering Babylon. This is not a contradiction because it very well could be that Darius the Mede was left in rule of Babylon while serving under the imperial reign of Cyrus.

3. The Cyrus Cylinder affirms the biblical prophecy of Cyrus’ release of captives. God not only used Cyrus as a tool to punish Babylon for their iniquities (Isa. 47:10-11), but once Cyrus gained power, the Lord used him to return his people to Jerusalem. After pronouncing judgment on Judah by the hands of Babylon (Isa. 43:14), God looks past the captivity and “says to Jerusalem, ‘You shall be inhabited’” (Isa. 44:26). Even before the Babylonian captivity, Jehovah gave hope to the faithful remnant by promising a return. The one ruler whom God would providentially use to make this happen would be, “Cyrus, ‘He is my shepherd, and he shall perform all My good pleasure’” (Isa. 44:28).

The Holy Spirit not only foretells the coming Babylonian destruction, he also specifies the length of their captivity. “For thus says the Lord: After seventy years are completed at Babylon, I will visit you and perform my good word toward you, and cause you to return to this place” (Jer. 29:10). Both Chronicles and Ezra refer to Jeremiah’s prophecy. “Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, that the word of the Lord spoken by the mouth of Jeremiah might be fulfilled, the Lord stirred the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia, so that he made a proclamation throughout all his kingdom” (2 Chron. 36:22; Ezra 1:1). Cyrus allows the captive Jew to return home saying, “May the Lord his God be with him, and let him go up!” (2 Chron. 36:23).

The Cyrus Cylinder verifies that Cyrus did in fact have a policy of returning captives to their homeland. He says, “I (also) gathered all their (former) inhabitants and returned (to them) their habitations” (Ibid. 208). Nearly 150 years prior to the event, the Holy Spirit accurately prophesied the return of the Jewish captives. Liberal scholars, try as they might, cannot adequately explain away this prophecy.

4. The Cyrus Cylinder verifies Cyrus’ sanctuary rebuilding policy. Speaking of Cyrus, Jehovah said, “He is my shepherd, and he shall perform all My pleasure, even saying to Jerusalem, ‘You shall be built,’ and to the temple, ‘Your foundation shall be laid’” (Isa. 44:28).  Cyrus proclaimed, God “has commanded me to build Him a house at Jerusalem” (Ezra 1:2). The Persian king even goes as far as to command his people to contribute “silver and gold, with goods and livestock, besides the freewill offerings for the house of God which is in Jerusalem” (Ezra 1:4). Years later as Darius the king of Persia (not to be confused with Darius the Mede) researches this edict of Cyrus, he discovers that Cyrus financed the Jerusalem reconstruction with Persian funds. “Let the expenses be paid from the king’s treasury” (Ezra 6:4).

Again, this is consistent with Cyrus’ behavior as described on his cylinder. “I returned to (these) sacred cities on the other side of the Tigris, the sanctuaries of which have been ruins for a long time, the images which (used) to live therein and established for them permanent sanctuaries” (Ibid. 208). Though there is no reference on the cylinder of king Cyrus specifically doing such for the Jewish nation, this quote clearly establishes the fact that the actions of Cyrus, as recorded by the Scriptures, are consistent with his dealings with conquered nations.

Final Lessons

The events surrounding Judah, Cyrus, and this cylinder affirm the following fundamental lessons:

1. God performs works beyond our imagination. While a dejected Judah sat captive in a foreign land, God was performing a grand work beyond their finite comprehension. About these events, the Lord explained to Habakkuk, “Look among the nations and watch — be utterly astounded! For I will work a work in your days which you would not believe, though it were told you” (Hab. 1:5; 2:3). Though we may not understand the discouraging events of our day, we can rest assured that God “is able to do exceedingly abundantly above all that we ask or think” (Eph. 3:20).

2. God does rule in the kingdoms of men. The Creator of this world is not indifferent towards or uninvolved with his creation. Just as God used Cyrus as an instrument to “perform all My pleasure” (Isa. 44:28), we can be confident that even among the worldly and political turmoil of our day, “The Most High rules in the kingdom of men” (Dan. 4:25).

3. God’s word is true. Despite the persistent effort of unbelievers to disprove the Bible, the Cyrus Cylinder is yet another historical find that affirms the Scriptures as accurate. Just prior to the Cyrus prophecy, Jehovah asserts, “I am the Lord . . . who confirms the word of His servant, and performs the counsel of His messengers” (Isa. 44:24-26). God kept his word in Cyrus’ day and he will keep his word in our day (2 Pet. 3:1-9).

Eichenring 4a, 66877 Ramstein, Germany Maxey5998@aol.com