by Shane Carrington
Synopsis: Are the biblical restrictions on the role of women in teaching and leadership rooted in ancient culture or divine revelation?
The New Testament was written long ago in a culture far, far away. Consequently, struggles arise when trying to decide if a teaching applies today and, if so, how. Paul plainly addresses teachings concerning restrictions of the roles of women with the following words:
A woman must quietly receive instruction with entire submissiveness. But I do not allow a woman to teach or exercise authority over a man, but to remain quiet (1 Tim. 2:11-12, NASB).
An overseer, then, must be above reproach, the husband of one wife… (1 Tim. 3:2).
Deacons must be husbands of only one wife… (1 Tim. 3:12).
These passages plainly prohibit women from serving as elders, deacons, preachers, and teachers of Bible classes that include men.
Some, though, regard these teachings as cultural, thus not applying to our twenty-first century American circumstance. Two typical quotations along this line:
In the first century situation with its generally patriarchal society, where women played little part in public affairs, teaching by women could be regarded as an unacceptable breach of behavior patterns, whether among Jews or also among some Gentiles. Accordingly, the restriction can be interpreted as a culturally shaped prohibition that is no longer binding in a different setting.1
In an ancient society, where illiteracy and lack of education were common, it was especially the women who would suffer from these disadvantages.2
These lines of reasoning, while not accepted by all, commonly surface in both casual conversations and academic discussions. However, are these rationales valid? To determine this, consider two lines of reasoning. First, are the above statements consistent with the ancient cultures to whom these writings were originally given? Second, are these considerations consistent with the contexts in which they are found?
Different cultures possess different histories and sometimes view similar concepts differently. Because of this, finding evidence from one culture may not give clear evidence as to how those concepts are used in a different culture. Here we must exercise caution.
For example, "The attitude of the Greeks toward women's place in society was not altogether uniform. Plato gave them practical equality with men. But Aristotle thought their activities should be severely limited…."3
Since Paul wrote 1 Timothy (from which our quotations for this article come) to the young evangelist while he was working in Ephesus (1 Tim. 1:3), let's consider first-century Ephesian culture to determine whether or not Paul's teachings here are culturally restricted.
Artemis/Diana was the chief deity in Ephesus. Her temple was among the seven wonders of the ancient world4, and was quite magnificent, measuring close to 400 feet long by 200 feet wide and containing 127 columns, each about six feet in diameter and about 60 feet high.5 Ephesians hailed their city as, "guardian of the temple of the great Artemis and of the image which fell down from heaven" (Acts 19:35). When the gospel impacted their culture, the silversmiths became angry at the financial hit their Artemis statue business took (Acts 19:23-27), causing quite an uproar.
As to the role of women in Ephesian culture, consider the following: First, Artemis was a goddess—their most famous and influential deity—not a male figure. Second, the Artemis cult had female leaders—not primarily male leaders. Thus, women in Ephesian culture possessed power and influence. Consider the following:
…one of the main things we know about religion in Ephesus is that the main religion…was a female-only cult. The Temple of Artemis (that's her Greek name; the Romans called her Diana) was a massive structure that dominated the area. As befitted worshippers of a female deity, the priests were all women. They ruled the show and kept the men in their place.6
The temple was attended by a very large hierarchy of religious persons, of which the chief were the Megabizes (cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxv.40 [123]), eunuchs, and young virgins. There were male and female priests...7
Prior to the empire, the supreme priest of the Ephesian Artemis appears to have been a eunuch, who adopted his successor. The Romans... transferred the lead function to a grand priestess, a virgin assisted by a college of virgins...8
…it is clear that women played a significant role and held important offices in many cults. The mythology of Ephesus [including the myth that Ephesus was founded by warrior women known as Amazons] bolstered their status in the Artemis cult. According to Pausanias…the Amazon women resided at the sacred place and performed rituals to Artemis there (7.2.4). Cultic activity for women was more prominent in Asia Minor than elsewhere (Ramsay 1900:67). Kearsley notes that the fifteen women who were archiereiai ("chief priests" or "high priests") in Ephesus is the largest group known from any city (1986:186). At least some held the title in their own right and were not dependent on the title of their husbands. Women were prominent in the Artemis cults as priestesses...9
The cult was served by priestess courtesans whose dress suggested some ancient link with the warrior-maids of Asia Minor.10
With women serving in such capacities, the argument that limitations on the role of women in Paul's letter to Timothy were due to the male dominance of their culture—and female subjugation—is false. Actually, Paul's writings in 1 Timothy run contrary to the culture in which they were received. Paul's teachings limit the role of women; Ephesian culture not only lacked such restriction, but women held powerful, public positions there. Paul's teachings are countercultural in Ephesus, not a repetition of the cultural norm.
Thus, the argument that scripture on this subject in 1 Timothy is cultural, not general, is unsubstantiated.
A woman must quietly receive instruction with entire submissiveness. But I do not allow a woman to teach or exercise authority over a man, but to remain quiet (1 Tim. 2:11-12).
With the cultural rationale set aside, now we may consider the immediate context. What reasons does Paul cite for the submissive role of women? The argument is two-fold:
First, in the garden, the male was created first: "For it was Adam who was first created, and then Eve" (1 Tim. 3:13). Second, in the garden, the woman was deceived. "And it was not Adam who was deceived, but the woman being deceived, fell into transgression" (1 Tim. 3:14).
While we may struggle with the precise significance of these statements, the rationales are rooted in creation, not culture (1 Tim. 2:11-15). Thus, appealing to either culture or context to set aside the force of these passages is moot.
Bible teaching often runs contrary to our feelings, opinions, and perceptions based on our experiences. Such occasions may challenge our faith. However, true faith seeks God's will, even when Scripture runs contrary to our intuition. Trust Him, and honor Him, through submission to His powerful word.
1 Kevin J. Vanhoozer, ed., Theological Interpretation of the New Testament (Baker Academic: Grand Rapids, 2005), p. 166.
2 Ibid., p. 167
3 Frank E. Gaebelein, ed., The Expositor's Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978), vol. 11, p. 361.
4 Joel B. Green and Lee Martin McDonald, eds., The World of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013), p. 508.
5 Ibid.
6 N. T. Wright, Surprised by Scripture: Engaging Contemporary Issues (New York: HarperCollins, 2014), p. 80.
7 G. W. Bromily, ed., The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Revised Edition (Eerdmans: Grand Rapids, 1979), vol. 1, p. 307.
8 Everett Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 3rd ed., (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), p. 198.
9 Rick Streland, Paul, Artemis and the Jews in Ephesus (Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruter & Co., 1996), p. 120.
10 E. M. Blaiklock and R. K. Harrison, eds., The New International Dictionary of Biblical Archaeology (Zondervan: Grand Rapids, 1983), p. 72.
Author Bio: Shane has labored with the Southside congregation in Sulphur Springs, TX for 18 years, where he also serves as a shepherd. He and his wife, Kelly, have two grown daughters, Rachel Robinson and Hannah Carrington, and a son-in-law, George Robinson. He can be reached at bshanec@mac.com.